Over the past decade, a new form of skepticism about human activities in space has emerged. It seems to be based exclusively in the western world, and centered around the idea that increasingly ambitious space plans will damage humanity and neglect the Earth.

In China, things are different, but this will likely change eventually. Our best data, a survey published in 2020 by Lincoln Hines, shows remarkably high levels of support for space programs in China. This is in spite of the costs, the occasional debris falling from the sky and memory of the deadly Xichang Disaster in 1996 when a Long March 3B heavy carrier crashed into a nearby residential complex.

So what does all this mean for the future of space exploration?

Western skepticism about human activities in outer space isn't actually new. There were space skeptics before there were even astronauts. In January 1920, the New York Times ridiculed the pioneer rocket scientist Robert H. Goddard for not "realizing" that rockets would have nothing to push against in space and would therefore be immobile.

Boeing's space capsule developed more leaks and ran into thruster trouble during its first test flight with astronauts as it closed in on the International Space Station on Thursday.

The Starliner capsule already had one small helium leak when it rocketed into orbit Wednesday. Boeing and NASA managers were confident they could manage the propulsion system despite the problem and that more leaks were unlikely.

A world-first launch from the far side of the moon this week showcased China's progress in space, and Beijing now wants its commercial sector to catch up to rivals such as Elon Musk's SpaceX.

Chinese companies lag far behind American frontrunners led by SpaceX, which plans to launch Starship, a massive prototype rocket that may one day send humans to Mars, on Thursday.

The gap is narrowing, however, as Beijing realizes the value a solid commercial sector can add to its existing capabilities, experts told AFP.

It could even become similar to the development of electric vehicles where EV pioneer Tesla, also founded by Musk, was an early mover in China but now faces fierce competition from a host of homegrown rivals, said analyst Chen Lan.

Astronauts driving a vehicle around the landscape of the moon must not only face dangers related to zero gravity and falling into craters, but also the problem of extreme fluctuations in temperature. The lunar environment oscillates between blistering highs of 127°C (260°F) and frigid lows of -173°C (-280°F).

Future missions to explore the moon will need reliable machines that can function under these harsh conditions. This led a team from Nagoya University in Japan to invent a heat-switch device that promises to extend the operational lifespan of lunar-roving vehicles. Their study, conducted in collaboration with the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, was published in the journal Applied Thermal Engineering.

"Heat-switch technology that can switch between daytime heat dissipation and nighttime insulation is essential for long-term lunar exploration," said lead researcher Masahito Nishikawara. "During the day, the lunar rover is active, and the electronic equipment generates heat.